OCRPL Public Lecture (Zoom) www.orcpl.org
Dr Albert Walters, onetime Vicar General of the Anglican Church in Iran
27 June 2025
Abstract
This paper examines the complex relationship between Iran (historically Persia) and Anglican Christianity, examining the theological, cultural, and political dimensions of their relationship. It traces the early Christian presence in Persia, the later Anglican missionary efforts, and the contemporary challenges and opportunities of Anglicanism in Iran. While Iran’s predominantly Islamic identity has shaped its relationship with Christianity, the Anglican Church’s historical presence in Persia reveals important patterns of cross-cultural engagement, educational development, and religious dialogue that continue to influence contemporary Iran-West relations and religious minority experiences within the Islamic Republic.
1.0 Introduction
The relationship between Iran and Anglican Christianity represents a fascinating intersection of religious, cultural, and political dynamics that spans nearly two centuries. This relationship, from the earliest Anglican missionary endeavors in 19th-century Persia to the contemporary challenges facing Christian minorities in Iran is in indeed captivating. It illuminates broader themes of religious pluralism, cultural exchange, and the complex negotiations between faith communities in contexts of significant religious and political transformation.
Understanding this relationship requires examining both the historical trajectory of Anglican engagement with Persia/Iran and the evolving nature of Christian identity within Iranian society. This analysis reveals how Anglican Christianity has both shaped and has been shaped by Iranian contexts, contributing to educational, medical, and social developments while navigating the challenges of minority status within a predominantly Islamic society.
2.0 Historical Background: Christianity in Persia
2.1 Iran’s Demography and Ethnicities
Iran’s history spans millennia, making it one of the world’s most ancient and culturally rich nations, continuously inhabited and influential throughout history. With a population of 92 million, Iran is a highly diverse country, both ethnically and culturally. Persians make up approximately 61 percent of the population, while significant minority groups include Azerbaijanis (16 percent), Kurds (10 percent) and others, such as Lurs (6 percent), Arabs (2 percent), Baloch (2 percent) and Turkic groups (2 percent).
Iran is predominantly Shia Muslim, making up about 90 percent of the population (strongly dominated by the Twelver Ja’fari School (referred to as Ithna’ashari in Arabic), while Sunni Muslims and other Muslim sects account for roughly 9 percent. The remaining 1 percent includes roughly 300,000 Baha’i, 300,000 Christians, 35,000 Zoroastrians, 20,000 Jews, and 10,000 Sabean Mandeans.[1]
2.2 Early Christianity in Persia
Primary sources of the earliest forms of Christianity in Persia are scant, but there is a shared consensus on the basic history of the period. Christians were in the area by 1st century CE.[2]
Christianity reached Persia some time during the Parthian (Ashkanian) period (247 BCE–224 CE), most likely through Jewish-Christian communities and apostolic missions. In the ‘Acts of the Apostles’ (2:9) it is mentioned that on the Day of Pentecost there were at Jerusalem “Parthians, Medes, Elamites, and inhabitants of Mesopotamia”. Early Christian records mention that Peter and Thomas preached the Gospel to the Parthians and men such as Thaddaeus, Bartholomew, and Addeus evangelized the races of Mesopotamia and Persia. Syriac documents also indicate that towards the beginning of the third century the Christians in the Persian territories had some three hundred and sixty churches, and many martyrs.[3]
The Sasanian Empire (226–651 CE) ruled Iran–Iraq and surrounding regions, including parts of Southeast Asia, Armenia, Egypt and greater Syria from 3rd to 7th centuries CE. During the Sasanian dynasty, Christian communities often faced persecution from Zoroastrian rulers who viewed them as politically suspect due to their ties to the Roman Empire. The Church of the East (later called the Nestorian Church) became the dominant Christian tradition in Persia, flourishing under the Sasanian Empire. Despite periodic persecutions, Persian Christianity developed a distinct identity, independently of Roman and Byzantine Christianity, fostering a distinct theological and liturgical tradition. About 350 CE the School of Nisibis, a famous East Syrian (Nestorian) centre of learning, was founded in Nisibis (Nusaybin town, modern day Turkey). The school, which had three primary departments teaching theology, philosophy, and medicine, has sometimes been called the world’s first university.
Persian Christianity was perhaps the first great non-Roman form of Christianity. The “Church of the East” was ecclesiastically “Persian” in that it was, with minor exceptions, the officially recognized Church of the Sasanian empire.
2.3 Persian Christianity Under Islamic Rule
By the time Islam arrived in Iran, Christianity in Iran was not considered orthodox by Rome. For the first couple of centuries of Islamic rule, Muslims were the minority in Iran. As Islamic dominance increased, a policy known as the Shurūt ‘Umar (Pact/Covenant of Umar) became the modus operandi, a regulation that imposed limitations on non-Muslims.
After the Arab-Muslim conquest in the 7th century, Christians became dhimmis (protected people) under Islamic rule. While some conversions occurred, Christian communities persisted particularly among Armenians and Assyrians. In the 16th century the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) enforced Shi’a Islam as the state religion, further marginalizing Christians. This Shia identity is deeply intertwined with Iranian national identity. It symbolized resistance against Sunni Ottoman and Uzbek rivals and aligned with narratives of injustice and martyrdom centered on figures like Ali and Hussein.
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries brought great changes in Persia. The first and most important was the ensuing cultural and religious exchange with Western churches through Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox missions. European Christian engagement with Persia increased in the early modern period due to diplomatic and commercial exchanges. Catholic missionaries, particularly Carmelites and Jesuits, were active in Safavid Persia (1501–1736). Protestant and Anglican presence however, only became notable in the 19th century.
2.4 Early Anglican Presence in Persia: The Missionary Movement Era (1840s-1920s)
The first missionary attempts to introduce the Christian message to Iranians preceding the formal establishment of the mission was undertaken by Henry Martyn, an Anglican clergyman, who arrived in Shiraz in 1811. Although his work was predominantly focused on the Persian Bible translation, he made an impression on the generation of missionaries and laid the foundations for the future Anglican missions carried out by the Church Missionary Society (CMS). The work was officially recognized by CMS in 1869, when Robert Bruce was appointed as a missionary to Iran. At that time, the missionary activity was limited to the Armenian quarter of Isfahan—New Jolfa.
Henry Martyn (1781–1812) a chaplain in the British East India Company, had already started translating the New Testament into Persian while he was in India. Late in 1810, Martyn took a leave of absence to travel through Iran to revise his Persian translation. In Iran, he thoroughly revised his Persian translation in collaboration with Mīrzā Sayyed ʿAlī Khan of Shiraz. The work was completed in 1812 (Waterfield, p. 179). Martyn spent some time in Iran shortly before his untimely death in Tokat, a city in Turkey at the age of 31. Bruce was charged by CMS with revising Martyn’s translation and eventually produced a translation of the whole Bible in 1895.
The early Anglican missionaries, led by figures such as Robert Bruce and later Charles Stileman (consecrated in July 1912 as the first Anglican Bishop in Iran), faced significant challenges. The Qajar government[4] was suspicious of foreign religious activities, particularly those associated with British political interests. However, the missionaries gradually gained acceptance by focusing on educational and medical work rather than aggressive proselytizing. Their efforts were characterized by an emphasis on education, medical care, and literary work, including translation of Christian texts into Persian. This pragmatic approach reflected the Anglican tradition’s emphasis on reason, education, and social engagement as integral to Christian witness. Unlike Catholic missions, Anglican missionaries arrived with a distinct Protestant theology and a more decentralized approach to church governance.
Between 1875 and 1900, CMS began medical and educational work in four southern Iranian cities – Isfahan, Yazd, Kerman and Shiraz. There were then forty-seven missionaries and seventy-five Christian Iranian workers in these four mission stations. A diocese was formed in 1912, and the Rt. Rev. C. H. Stileman was consecrated Bishop. He was followed by the Rt. Rev. J. H. Linton in 1919, and then Bishop W. J. Thompson in 1935.
The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries also saw the beginning of new Christian communities, made up mostly by converts from Muslim families. The Episcopal (Anglican) Church flourished in various cities, as did various smaller Catholic, Protestant and Evangelical communities that were added to the spectrum of Christian churches over the course of the twentieth century.
2.5 Anglican Educational and Medical Contributions
Two schools, one for boys and one for girls, and a small hospital were founded by CMS missionaries in Jolfā. The boy’s school in Jolfā was later named Stuart Memorial College and it accepted boarding students. This college, established in 1873 under the direction of the Reverend (later Bishop) W. J. Thompson, became one of Iran’s premier educational institutions. The college attracted students from across Iran and neighboring countries, including many Muslims who appreciated the high quality of English-language education offered. This college, is now called the Dabiristan e-Adab (the School of Good Manners) since foreign names are no longer allowed. Other institutions were later added to the mission: a school for the blind, book shops, new schools, and hostels.
The establishment of educational institutions was one of the most significant aspects of Anglican involvement in Persia. The schools provided modern education to both Christian and Muslim students, contributing to the broader modernization efforts within Persian society. These institutions often served as bridges between traditional Persian culture and emerging modern educational approaches. They introduced Western pedagogical methods while respecting local cultural sensitivities.
The Anglican educational approach differed markedly from traditional Islamic madrasas. The curriculum included modern sciences, mathematics, and languages alongside religious instruction. This educational model proved attractive to Iranian families seeking to prepare their children for engagement with the modern world while maintaining their cultural identity.
Medical missions represented another crucial dimension of Anglican engagement. The establishment of hospitals and clinics by Anglican medical missionaries provided essential healthcare services while demonstrating Christian compassion and service. The “Christian Hospital” in Isfahan is still operational, under new Muslim management, though it has been officially renamed the “Jesus Son of Mary Hospital” (Isa ibn Maryam Hospital). These medical facilities often served diverse populations and contributed to public health improvements in urban centers like Isfahan, Tehran, and Tabriz.
In 1940 the government nationalized all missionary schools in Persia (Waterfield, p. 143; Dehqani-Tafti, p. 20), although after World War II the diocese once again became involved in extensive educational activities. The hospitals were allowed to continue operating until the beginning of the Revolution of 1978-79.
2.6 Establishment of the Anglican Church in Iran
Until the formation of the independent Diocese of Iran, the Anglican clergy in Persia had been under the titular jurisdiction of the Bishop of London. The diocese primarily served expatriates and small convert communities. In 1912 Reverend Charles H. Stileman was appointed the first Anglican bishop in Persia, with his see at Isfahan. However, he was not physically strong and resigned a few years later. The second bishop, James H. Linton, was consecrated in 1919. Bishop Linton and his successors played key roles in fostering a uniquely Iranian Anglican identity that respected local customs while maintaining Anglican doctrine.
Archdeacon William J. Thompson, until then principal of the Stuart Memorial College, was consecrated as the third bishop in Persia in 1935. He served until 1961, when the first native Persian Bishop, Hassan Dehqani-Tafti was consecrated in Jerusalem. On the retirement of Bishop Dehqānī Taftī, Iraj Mottaḥedeh, who had been consecrated as Assistant Bishop in 1986, was elected Bishop of Persia in May 1990 and installed in the office on 12 October 1990.
In 2004, on Bishop Mottahedeh’s retirement, there being no suitable candidates within Iran, Azad Marshall of Pakistan was invited to take over episcopal oversight for the church. Bishop Azad Marshall was installed as sixth Bishop in Iran at St Paul’s Church Tehran in August 2007. In January 2016 Bishop Azad Marshall resigned as Bishop in Iran in order to take up a new post as Co-Adjutor Bishop of the Diocese of Raiwind in Pakistan.
In 1976 the Anglican Church in Iran became one of the members of the newly created Province of Jerusalem and the Middle East.[5] A crucial development in the early period was the Anglican Church’s commitment to developing Iranian leadership. This policy proved farsighted, as it allowed the Anglican Church to maintain continuity during periods of political instability and anti-foreign sentiment. Iranian Anglican clergy could navigate cultural sensitivities more effectively than their British counterparts.
3.0 The Constitutional Revolution and 20th Century Developments
3.1 Religious Freedom and Constitutional Monarchy
The end of the 19th century was the beginning of fundamental changes in Iran and the start of the Constitutional Revolution. The Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1911 brought new opportunities and challenges for religious minorities, including Anglican Christians. The constitution recognized Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians as protected minorities (dhimmis) with guaranteed representation in parliament, the Majlis. This legal recognition provided Anglican communities with unprecedented security and opportunities for public participation.
According to this constitution Jews, Christians and Zoroastrians had the right to elect one delegate each to the Majlis, but they could not participate in elections of other delegates. The constitution also prohibited non-Shiite Muslims from becoming members of the Government.
Upon the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918), the Iranian government, under the last Qajar king, Ahmad Shah, declared strict neutrality by royal decree on November 1, 1914. However, during the war, there was famine in Iran from 1917-1919. This calamity claimed the lives of 8 to 10 million people out of a population of 18 to 20 million and is sometimes called the “Iranian Holocaust.” This catastrophic event was mainly due to the British, Russian, and Ottoman invasions that had blatantly disregarded Iran’s declaration of neutrality.[6]
World War I created significant challenges for Anglican communities in Iran. British political involvement in Iran during the war created suspicion about Anglican missionaries’ loyalties. The perception that Anglican Christianity was a tool of British imperialism became more pronounced, forcing Anglican leaders to carefully navigate between their religious mission and political neutrality. Despite these challenges, Anglican institutions continued to serve Iranian society. During the Spanish Flu pandemic from 1918 to 1920, Anglican hospitals and medical personnel played crucial roles in providing care, thus enhancing their reputation within Iranian society. This period demonstrated the Anglican Church’s commitment to serving all Iranians regardless of their religious background.
3.2 The Pahlavi Era (1925-1979): Modernization and Adaptation
The rise of Reza Shah Pahlavi in 1925 brought significant changes to Iran’s religious landscape. His modernization and secularization policies created new opportunities for religious minorities while also imposing new constraints. While his regime had its share of repression, particularly against political dissidents, it also championed Westernization, economic growth and women’s rights. The Shah’s emphasis on Iranian nationalism sometimes conflicted with the international character of Anglican Christianity, but it also reduced clerical influence and created space for religious diversity.
Anglican institutions adapted to these changes by emphasizing their contributions to Iranian development. The Anglican Church supported the Shah’s educational reforms and contributed to literacy campaigns. Anglican schools modified their curricula to align with national educational standards while maintaining their Christian character.
3.3 The Islamic Revolution and Its Aftermath (1979-Present)
The 1979 Iranian Revolution treated Islam as the main feature of the newly constructed state identity. The Revolution redefined the social, cultural, and political scenes by putting the so-
called ‘religious minorities’ (aqaliyat-e dini) in the new order. Minorities such as Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews obtained both rights (granted by the new Constitution) and
limitations. Concerning Christians, the constitutional rights were preserved to the ‘ethnic’ Christians: Armenians and Assyrians only.[7]
The new Islamic Republic’s constitution recognized Christians as a protected minority (dhimmi) but imposed significant restrictions on missionary activities and church operations. According to the new constitution the religious minorities are permitted to follow their own religious laws in matters of marriage, divorce and inheritance. Anglican Christians, along with other Christian denominations, are guaranteed freedom of worship and are allocated representation in parliament. However, these protections come with significant limitations, including restrictions on evangelism among Muslims and constraints on construction of church buildings and renovation.
The constitution also made Shariah the legal code and therefore gender and religious discriminations are an integral part of the system. Bahai once again are not recognized at all. Jews, Christians and Zoroastrians each have their own representatives in the Parliament and are not legally forbidden from employment in the government sector. But since the authorities only employ Muslims and a ‘Shariah test’ is required, in reality these people are once again barred from working in the government sector.
Anglican institutions faced particular scrutiny due to their historical association with Britain. The immediate post-revolutionary period was marked by uncertainty and fear. Many Anglican clergy and prominent lay leaders left Iran, creating a leadership crisis. However, the decision by some Iranian Anglican leaders to remain and adapt to the new circumstances proved crucial for the community’s survival.
When the Revolution began, it appeared that there would be no problem. The Episcopal Church in Iran had centers in Teheran, Isfahan, Shiraz, Yazd, and Kerman with nine native clergy — all converts from Islam, Judaism, or Zoroastrianism. There were 25 foreign workers: clergy, doctors, nurses, and teachers to staff hospitals, clinics, and schools for the blind.[8]
In the first few months of the Revolution of 1978-79 the Diocese of Persia suffered greatly. Its senior Persian priest, the Reverend Arastoo Sayyah, a Muslim convert was murdered in Shiraz in February 1979 (Dehqani-Tafti, 1981, pp. 37-38). All of the diocesan institutions were expropriated by the revolutionary committees and the staff were expelled. Most missionaries left the country, and those who did not were briefly imprisoned.
Bishop Dehqani-Tafti protested to the government in Tehran to no avail. In October 1979 there was an attempt on the life of Bishop Dehqani-Tafti and his wife, which they miraculously survived. In 1980 the bishop’s secretary, Jean Waddell, a missionary, was wounded by intruders (Dehqani-Tafti, 1981, pp. 76 ff., 96). A week later the bishop’s only son, Bahram, was brutally murdered in Tehran.
While attending meetings of the Anglican Communion, Bishop Dehqani-Tafti was advised by trusted colleagues to remain outside the country. The Bishop remained outside Iran for the rest of his life. He devoted himself to completing his time as Presiding Bishop, to supporting the Church in Iran and to writing extensively in Persian to provide resources for Iranians, including a three-volume study of ‘Christ and Christianity among Iranians’. He retired in 1994 and was never able to return to his homeland. He died in England in 2008. He was succeeded by Iraj Muttahedeh who had been consecrated to be Assistant Bishop in Iran in 1986.
Anglican communities have had to navigate complex regulations governing religious practice, conversion, and evangelization. The legal distinction between “traditional” Christians (those from Christian families) and converts from Islam has created particular challenges for Anglican churches, which have historically emphasized personal conversion and individual faith decisions. Iran’s indigenous Christians include an estimated 250,000 Armenians, some 32,000 Assyrians, and a small number of Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Protestant Iranians converted by missionaries in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.[9]
3.4 Present Relevance and Contemporary Challenges
Anglican communities in Iran face multiple challenges. Emigration has significantly reduced community size, with many members leaving for Europe, North America, Asia and Australia. The remaining communities are often elderly, creating concerns about long-term sustainability. At the same time there are various reports about increasing numbers of Christian converts in Iran and among Iranians elsewhere. While it is difficult to verify individual reports or the overall numbers involved, there is little reason to doubt the fact that Christianity, despite its decreased visibility in Iranian society, continues to be present in all kinds of surprising ways.
In 1916, the late Dr. Catherine Ironside, a missionary in the CMS hospital in Isfahan, wrote:
“God is working and who can stay His hand? Let us not doubt or be disheartened, but wait and watch in faith and hope. He is preparing for a great advance in Iran, and we do not know how soon the opportunity for it will be given. One question, a very serious question, I would ask myself and my readers: ‘When our Captain gives the word to advance, shall we be ready for it?’”
Economic sanctions and international isolation have made it difficult for Iranian Anglican communities to maintain connections with the broader Anglican Communion. Travel restrictions limit participation in international Anglican gatherings, and financial constraints affect church maintenance and programming.
Religious restrictions also create ongoing challenges. While worship is generally permitted, evangelism is prohibited, and conversion from Islam to Christianity is legally forbidden. These restrictions limit the church’s growth potential and create pressure on Iranian Christians who wish to share their faith.
In the 1980s there were 43 Protestant churches in Iran – many of which offered services in the national language, Persian, and attracted Iranians of all ethnicities. In 2023, just 16 remain, only three of which are permitted to preach in Persian.
These three are Anglican churches in the major cities of Tehran, Isfahan and Shiraz. Only those who can prove they were Christians before the inception of the Islamic Republic in 1979 are permitted. Even these three churches have not been allowed to reopen since the COVID-19 pandemic. So in reality there are now only 12 Protestant churches operating in Iran and these churches can only offer services in the ethnic-minority languages of Armenian or Assyrian.[10]
The Anglican diocese has been without a resident bishop for six years now, and foreign bishops are denied entry. Membership has fallen to fewer than 100, mostly elderly individuals connected to the church’s historical social services. But with no longer any bishop in the country, nor even visits of foreign-based bishops permitted, no churches open, and no possibility of new members, the future of the Anglican Church in Iran seems bleak.[11]
However, a new Christian minority has emerged in Iran in recent decades moving beyond ethnic lines, as an indigenous community of up to 800,000 or even one million members. Informal churches have sprung up across the country, meeting together in private homes in what have become known as “house-churches”. But the criminalisation of house churches forces them to live either as isolated believers or to meet with great caution and secrecy. To avoid detection, groups may be held at different homes in rotation, members may stagger the time they arrive, and voices are kept low when they pray or sing.
4.0 Theological Contributions and Distinctiveness
4.1 Persian Anglican Theology
Iranian Anglican theology has developed unique characteristics that distinguish it from both Western Anglicanism and other Middle Eastern Christianity. Persian Anglican theologians have engaged seriously with Islamic thought. They have developed sophisticated approaches to interfaith dialogue and theological reflection that acknowledge Iran’s Islamic context while maintaining Christian distinctiveness.
The concept of “Iranian Christian identity” has become central to Persian Anglican theology. This identity emphasizes continuity with pre-Islamic Iranian Christianity while acknowledging the profound influence of Islamic civilization on Iranian culture. Anglican theologians in Iran have argued that Christianity and Islam share common Persian cultural foundations that enable meaningful dialogue and coexistence. In fact Bishop Guli Francis-Dehqani reiterates saying, “Christianity is in fact neither foreign nor alien to Iran. … Christ and Christianity have been present in the Persian psyche, in Persian art and poetry, in Persian culture for centuries.”[12]
The Jesus Tile is one such form of artistic expression reflecting the cultural and aesthetic tastes of the Qajar Dynasty (1789-1925) in Iran. The eight-pointed star tile contains in the centre the Holy Name of Jesus Christ (Isa Masih), surrounded by eight biblical attributes/titles. It is found in the Anglican Church of St Simon the Zealot in Shiraz and in St Luke’s Church in Isfahan. The original tile in Shiraz was designed in 1938 by its builder Norman Sharp. He recorded forms of classical Islamic art and used them for the biblical message of Jesus Christ.
In Iran, Nowruz celebrations blend traditional Persian New Year festivities with Christian faith, particularly emphasizing themes of new beginnings and spiritual renewal. Iranian Christians often see the Nowruz holiday, which coincides with the arrival of spring, as a time to reflect on the new life found in Christ and to share the Gospel with family and friends.
In a recent lecture, Dr Sara Afshari of the Oxford Centre for Mission Studies, explores Nowruz (Persian New Year) as a theological framework for Persian Christian identity and covenant renewal. Rooted in themes of rebirth, reconciliation, and cosmic balance, Nowruz, she says, provides a meaningful bridge between Persian cultural heritage and Christian theology.[13]
4.2 Persian Language Liturgy
Iranian Anglican liturgy represents one of the community’s most significant theological contributions. The Persian-language Anglican liturgy incorporates classical Persian poetry, traditional Iranian musical forms, and cultural symbols that resonate with Iranian sensibilities. This liturgical development demonstrates how Anglican Christianity can authentically adapt to non-Western cultural contexts.
The use of Persian mystical poetry in Anglican worship has been particularly innovative. Anglican liturgists have incorporated works by Hafez, Rumi, and other Persian poets into Christian worship, creating unique expressions of Anglican spirituality that speak to Iranian hearts and minds.
Anglican liturgical innovation in Iran has focused on creating Persian language services, particularly for Holy Communion. The Church of England has developed a Persian language translation of the Holy Communion service, allowing for bilingual worship alongside the traditional English version. This is particularly important for Iranian Christians who may not be fluent in English.[14]
5.0 Social Contributions and Community Service
5.1 Healthcare and Medical Missions
Anglican medical missions have made lasting contributions to Iranian healthcare. The Anglican hospital in Isfahan pioneered modern medical practices in Iran and trained generations of Iranian medical professionals. Even after the Islamic Revolution, Anglican medical professionals have continued to serve Iranian society, often in ways that transcend religious boundaries.
Contemporary Anglican communities continue to emphasize healthcare ministry, operating clinics and health programs that serve broader Iranian society. These ministries provide practical demonstrations of Christian love and service while contributing to Iranian social welfare.
5.2 Educational Legacy
The educational legacy of Anglican missions in Iran remains significant. Many prominent Iranians received their education at Anglican schools, and the emphasis on English-language education has had lasting impacts on Iranian intellectual development. Former students of Anglican schools have often maintained positive relationships with the Anglican community even when they have not embraced Christianity.
Contemporary Anglican communities continue to prioritize education, operating schools and tutoring programs that serve both Christian and non-Christian students. These educational ministries provide opportunities for positive Christian witness while contributing to Iranian educational development.
6.0 Interfaith Relations and Dialogue
6.1 Christian-Muslim Relations
While the Anglican Church in Iran generally avoided direct conflict with Shia clerical authorities, it operated within a religiously restrictive environment. Despite these challenges, it gained a degree of respect due to its humanitarian contributions and non-proselytizing posture.
Anglican communities in Iran have developed sophisticated approaches to Christian-Muslim relations. Unlike some Christian communities that have adopted defensive or separatist strategies, Iranian Anglicans have generally pursued engagement and dialogue with their Muslim neighbours. This approach reflects both theological convictions about God’s love for all people and practical necessities of living as a minority in an Islamic society.
Anglican leaders have participated in interfaith dialogue initiatives that seek common ground between Christianity and Islam. These efforts have often focused on shared ethical concerns such as social justice, care for the poor, and environmental stewardship. Such dialogue has helped reduce suspicion and build bridges between religious communities.
6.2 Relations with Other Christian Communities
The Anglican Church in Iran maintains complex relationships with other Christian denominations. Historical tensions between Protestant and Orthodox traditions have sometimes created challenges, but shared experiences of minority status have also fostered cooperation. Anglican communities have often worked with Armenian Apostolic, Assyrian, and other Christian communities on issues of common concern.
Ecumenical cooperation has been particularly important in addressing government relations and legal issues affecting all Christians. Anglican leaders have often played mediating roles in inter-Christian disputes while advocating for the rights of all Christian minorities.
7.0 Contemporary Challenges and Future Prospects
7.1 Demographic Changes and Diaspora Communities
Contemporary Anglican communities in Iran face significant demographic challenges. Emigration has reduced community size, and low birth rates among remaining members threaten long-term sustainability. The communities are often elderly, with limited number of young people to assume leadership roles.
These demographic challenges require creative responses. Some Anglican communities have developed innovative programs to engage young people and families. Others have focused on quality rather than quantity, seeking to maintain strong, committed communities even if they remain small.
Many Iranian Anglicans fled after the revolution and established diaspora communities, especially in the UK, the US, and Canada. These communities have maintained their Iranian Christian identity while also participating in broader Anglican networks.
One prominent example is the Rt Revd Dr Guli Francis-Dehqani, daughter of the first native Persian Bishop, Hassan Dehqani-Tafti. She was born in Isfahan where she lived for the first fourteen years of her life. She arrived in the UK as a refugee from Iran following her brother’s assassination in 1980 and has, to date, been unable to return to Iran. Guli was appointed as the first Bishop of Loughborough in 2017 and has been the Bishop of Chelmsford since March 2021. She is seen as one of the frontrunners nominated for the position of Archbishop of Canterbury.[15]
7.2 Digital Ministry and Global Connections
The digital age has created new opportunities for Iranian Anglican communities to maintain connections with the global Anglican Communion despite travel and communication restrictions. Online worship services, digital theological education, and social media connections have helped Iranian Anglicans participate in broader Anglican conversations.
Digital ministry has also enabled new forms of evangelism and religious education that operate within legal constraints. Online Bible studies, theological discussions, and spiritual counseling provide ways for Anglican communities to share their faith while respecting legal limitations.
7.3 Theological Education and Leadership Development
Contemporary Anglican communities in Iran have invested significantly in theological education and leadership development. Distance learning programs, online seminaries, and intensive training workshops have helped prepare new generations of Iranian Anglican leaders.
These educational initiatives have often emphasized contextual theology that addresses specifically Iranian concerns and challenges. The development of Iranian Anglican theological literature has been a particular priority, creating resources that speak to Iranian cultural and religious contexts.
Pars Theological Centre was founded in 2010 by an interdenominational group of Iranian theologians, pastors and counsellors who started an interdenominational hub for biblical, holistic and contextual leadership training for Iranians.[16]
8.0 Global Anglican Communion Relations
8.1 Maintaining Connection Despite Isolation
Iranian Anglican communities have worked to maintain connections with the broader Anglican Communion despite political and logistical challenges. These connections provide spiritual encouragement, theological resources, and material support that help sustain Iranian Anglican communities.
The Archbishop of Canterbury and other Anglican leaders have maintained contact with Iranian Anglican communities, offering support and advocacy when possible. These relationships demonstrate the global character of Anglican Christianity while acknowledging the particular challenges faced by Iranian Anglicans.
8.2 Contributions to Global Anglicanism
Iranian Anglican communities have made significant contributions to global Anglican theology and practice. Their experiences of minority status, interfaith relations, and cultural adaptation provide valuable insights for Anglican communities in other challenging contexts.
The theological work of Iranian Anglican scholars has enriched global Anglican understanding of interfaith dialogue, contextual theology, and minority Christian identity. These contributions demonstrate that Anglican Christianity can thrive in diverse cultural and religious contexts while maintaining its distinctive character.
9.0 Policy Implications and International Relations
9.1 Religious Freedom and Diplomacy
The situation of Anglican communities in Iran has implications for international religious freedom advocacy and diplomatic relations. Western governments and international organizations have often cited the treatment of Christian minorities, including Anglicans, in their assessments of Iranian human rights practices.
However, Iranian Anglican leaders have often advocated for nuanced approaches to international advocacy that avoid exacerbating their situation through confrontational rhetoric. They have generally preferred quiet diplomacy and behind-the-scenes advocacy to public criticism that might provoke government retaliation.
9.2 Building Bridges
Anglican communities in Iran have often served as bridges between Iranian society and the international community. Their bicultural identity and language skills have made them valuable intermediaries in various contexts. This bridge-building role has been particularly important during periods of international tension.
The Anglican emphasis on dialogue and reconciliation has provided models for broader international relations. Anglican approaches to interfaith dialogue and conflict resolution offer insights that extend beyond purely religious contexts.
10.0 Lessons for Contemporary Christianity
10.1 Adaptation and Indigenization
The Iranian Anglican experience provides valuable lessons about Christian adaptation to non-Western contexts. The successful development of Persian Anglican theology and liturgy demonstrates that Christianity can maintain its essential character while adapting to diverse cultural contexts.
The Anglican emphasis on developing indigenous leadership has proven crucial for long-term sustainability. Churches that invest in local leadership development are better positioned to survive political upheavals and cultural changes than those that maintain permanent foreign control.
10.2 Minority Christian Identity
Iranian Anglican communities offer important insights into minority Christian identity and survival strategies. Their experiences demonstrate the importance of community solidarity, cultural adaptation, and positive engagement with majority populations.
The Anglican approach of emphasizing service and contribution to broader society has helped establish positive relationships that transcend religious boundaries. This approach offers models for other minority Christian communities facing similar challenges.
11.0 Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century
11.1 Emerging Opportunities
Despite significant challenges, Iranian Anglican communities also face new opportunities in the 21st century. Growing international interest in interfaith dialogue has created platforms for Iranian Anglican voices to be heard globally. The community’s unique position at the intersection of Christianity and Islamic civilization provides valuable perspectives on contemporary religious issues.
Educational opportunities have expanded through digital technology, enabling Iranian Anglican students to access theological education and professional development programs previously unavailable. These educational opportunities are creating new generations of informed and committed Anglican leaders.
11.2 Strategic Priorities
Contemporary Iranian Anglican communities have identified several strategic priorities for the future. Leadership development remains crucial, as does the need to engage young people and families. Theological education and spiritual formation are seen as essential for maintaining Anglican identity and mission.
Community sustainability requires attention to both spiritual and practical needs. This includes maintaining church buildings and institutions while also developing new forms of ministry appropriate to contemporary circumstances. The balance between preserving tradition and embracing innovation remains a constant challenge.
12.0 Conclusion
The relationship between Iran and Anglican Christianity represents a remarkable story of adaptation, survival, and contribution that spans more than 150 years. From its origins in 19th-century missionary activity to its contemporary expression as an indigenous Iranian religious community, Anglican Christianity in Iran has demonstrated remarkable resilience and creativity.
The Iranian Anglican experience offers valuable insights into several crucial contemporary issues. It demonstrates how religious minorities can maintain their identity while contributing positively to majority societies. It shows how international religious communities can adapt to local contexts without losing their essential character. It provides models for interfaith dialogue and cooperation that transcend purely religious boundaries.
Perhaps most importantly, the Iranian Anglican story illustrates the complex relationship between religion, culture, and politics in the modern Middle East. The community’s ability to navigate changing political circumstances while maintaining its religious identity and social contributions offers hope for religious pluralism in challenging contexts.
As Iranian Anglican communities face an uncertain future, their historical experience provides both encouragement and guidance. Their survival through revolution, war, and social transformation demonstrates remarkable resilience. Their contributions to Iranian education, healthcare, and intellectual life establish their legitimacy as authentic Iranian institutions.
The global Anglican Communion’s relationship with Iranian Anglicans also reflects broader questions about international religious solidarity and support for persecuted minorities. The challenge of maintaining meaningful connections across political and cultural boundaries while respecting local circumstances requires wisdom and patience.
Looking forward, the Iranian Anglican experience suggests that authentic religious communities can survive and even thrive in challenging circumstances when they combine faithfulness to their core identity with creative adaptation to local contexts. The emphasis on service, dialogue, and positive contribution to society provides a model that transcends specifically Christian contexts.
The story of Iran and Anglican Christianity ultimately demonstrates that religious identity is not fixed or immutable but can develop and adapt while maintaining essential continuity. This lesson has implications not only for Christian communities but for all religious groups seeking to maintain their identity in rapidly changing global contexts.
As Iran continues to evolve politically and socially, the role of religious minorities, including Anglican Christians, will likely remain significant. Their experiences of navigating between tradition and modernity, between local identity and international connection, between majority and minority status, provide valuable insights for understanding contemporary Iran and the broader Middle East.
The historical identity and present relevance of Anglican Christianity in Iran thus extend far beyond the boundaries of the Anglican community itself. They offer windows into the complex dynamics of religious pluralism, cultural adaptation, and minority survival that characterize much of the contemporary world. Understanding this relationship enriches our comprehension of both Iranian society and global Christianity while pointing toward possibilities for constructive interfaith relations in challenging circumstances.
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[1] Alia Chughtai and Mohamed A. Hussein (2025) A simple visual guide to Iran and its people. Aljazeera 20 Jun 2025. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/6/20/a-simple-visual-guide-to-iran-and-its-people
[2] Richard C. Foltz, Spirituality in the Land of the Noble: How Iran Shaped the World’s Religions (Oxford: Oneworld, 2004), 80; Mark Bradley, Iran and Christianity: Historical Identity and Present Relevance (London: Continuum, 2008), 138; and Ian Gillman and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit, Christians in Asia before 1500 (Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1999), 109.
[3] Massoume Price. (2002) A Brief History of Christianity in Iran. http://ikelisa.com/en/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-iran/
[4] Qājār dynasty ruled Iran from 1794 to 1925. In 1779, Agha Mohammad Khan, a leader of the Qajar tribe, set out to reunify Iran. He established Tehran as the capital and in 1796 he was formally crowned as shah or emperor.
[5] For more on the history and beginnings of the Diocese of Iran, see Robin E. Waterfield, Christians in Persia (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1973); and Gordon Hewitt, The Problems of Success: A History of the Church Missionary Society 1910–1942, Volume I (London: SCM Press, 1971), 380–383.
[6] Faramarz Kouhpayeh, Neutral Iran one of the biggest victims of WWI. Tehran Times, December 1, 2024. https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/506993/Neutral-Iran-one-of-the-biggest-victims-of-WWI
[7] Marcin Rzepka. (2017) Prayer and Protest. The Protestant Communities in Revolutionary Iran. https://doi.org/10.21906/9788376431376.
[8] John D. Zimmerman. (1981) The Suffering Church: Anglicans in Iran. Episcopal News Service. February 12, 1981 [81048] https://episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/ENS/ENSpress_release.pl?pr_number=81048
[9] Massoume, A Brief History of Christianity in Iran
[10] Article 18 (2023) 10 years since forced closure of Iran’s largest Persian-speaking church. 19 May 2023.
[11] Anonymous (2025) The suffocation and slow death of the Anglican Church in Iran, March 25, 2025. Anglican Ink. https://anglican.ink/2025/03/25/the-suffocation-and-slow-death-of-the-anglican-church-in-iran/
[12] Guli Francis-Dehqani (2025) How can we be both Persian and Christian? Bishop Guli’s address to the Persian Anglican Network Conference 14th June 2025. https://www.chelmsford.anglican.org/news/bishop-gulis-address-to-the-persian-anglican-network-conference
[13] Sara Afshari (2025). A New Day in Christ: Nowruz as a Framework for Iranian Christian Theology. March 18, 2025. https://www.ocms.ac.uk/event/a-new-day-in-christ-nowruz-as-a-framework-for-iranian-christian-theology/#:~:text=The%20lecture%20explores%20Nowruz%20(Persian,Media%20Communication%20from%20Wales%20University.
[14] Church of England launches Persian language Communion Service. 03/03/2019. https://www.churchofengland.org/media/press-releases/church-england-launches-persian-language-communion-service
[15] Anugrah Kumar. Church of England may get its first female archbishop of Canterbury. The Christian Post 20 May 2025. https://www.christianpost.com/news/church-of-england-may-get-its-first-female-leader.html. See also Elizabeth Ivens. Iranian-born refugee could become the first woman to head the Church of England. The Daily Mail Online 17 May 2025. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-14723161/Iranian-born-refugee-woman-head-Church-England.html
[16] Pars Theological Centre. https://parstheology.org/about/